Taylor Swift has filed a trademark application covering her voice and stage image. It includes a photo of her performing in her distinctive bejewelled Eras Tour bodysuit and two voice recordings: “Hey, it’s Taylor” and “Hey, it’s Taylor Swift.”

It’s the latest example of the singer using her status and power to challenge industry norms and assert the rights of artists.

In 2014, Swift removed her entire catalogue from Spotify in protest at the low level of artist remuneration generated by the platform (later relenting in 2017). In 2019, she began rerecording her previous albums in protest at the acquisition of her back catalogue by alleged industry foe Scooter Braun’s Ithaca Holdings, giving her back control over masters of her songs. The new “Taylor’s Versions” outperformed the original versions on streaming services.

Although the actor Matthew McConaughey beat Swift to the punch by successfully trademarking some of his famous spoken lines of movie dialogue earlier this year, she appears to be the first music artist of note to take the step. The move raises some interesting issues in terms of copyright law and the rights of music artists.

‘Passing off’ and deepfaking

In music, both sound recordings and the songs which they embody are protected by copyright law. Much of the income generated by the music industry is based on the commercial exclusivity to exploit these forms of intellectual property (IP), which that law ensures.

All of Swift’s vocals are protected from copying in terms of being sampled without permission. But the question of whether or not a vocal being performed (or manufactured in the case of AI) to sound like Swift is a copyright infringement is less clear.

In 1988, Bette Midler successfully sued Ford Motor Company for using an impersonator to perform her songs in TV adverts. This case suggests that deliberately copying a singer’s voice, style and tone can amount to passing off. In UK law, passing off is a common law tort involving misrepresentation that causes reputational or financial damage. In the US, similar protection is provided under the Lanham Act, which also guards against misleading imitation.

This article is part of our State of the Arts series. These articles tackle the challenges of the arts and heritage industry – and celebrate the wins, too.

Swift has also experienced the darker side of deepfakes, including fake pornographic images and AI-generated photos showing her wearing a “Swifties for Trump” T-shirt ahead of the last US presidential election.

The US Take It Down Act, covering explicit deepfake content was passed into law in 2025. Similar protection is possible in the UK via the Data (Use and Access) Act 2025.

While further legislation is being developed in the US to address AI-generated impersonation more broadly, Swift’s move to trademark both her voice and visual likeness suggests a desire to retain stronger legal control over her identity. This may give her a basis for pursuing civil action under common law or intellectual property rights when objectionable AI-generated content appears. Given her significant wealth and influence, such legal routes may also allow for faster enforcement than relying solely on the criminal justice system.

The trademarks registered both by McConaughey and Swift arguably only offer protection for exactly what has been registered on the basis of the scope of a trademark being “what you see is what you get”.

However, the fact that many platforms require proof of IP registration before taking down potentially infringing content suggests that having these trademarks in place will act as a powerful deterrent against future fakes at the very least.

Training data

A more complex issue for Swift and artists in general is the use of their existing works as data by AIs to create new works. For example, I could prompt an AI to write a song for me in the style of Fearless-era Swift but performed by a voice that is a cross between Norah Jones and Diana Krall. It would be very hard to prove that any particular piece of IP had been infringed, as the AI would be synthesising dozens of songs and performances to achieve its creation.

However, new content would have been created via the mining of existing IP; a songwriter’s moral right of integrity protects against adaptation of their works without permission, and musicians and songwriters have become increasingly concerned that they are not being recompensed sufficiently, or indeed even consulted about AI using their work.

In the UK, the Musicians Union has launched an initiative demanding consent and remuneration for AI training and AI-generated music. The UK government has pulled back from its previous line of allowing an exemption for AI training on copyrighted works in favour of more creator control after strong opposition to this stance from the creative industries.

The UK Performing Rights Society, which collects royalties from around the globe for its songwriter and composer members (and their publishing companies) when their work is performed live, broadcast or streamed, has declared that it will not register AI-generated works. However, it will register works which it classes as AI-assisted. This leads to the question of how much human input needs to be evidenced for a piece of music to be copyright-able.

In UK copyright law, the Copyright, Design and Patents Act allows for recordings “generated by computer” but a song or composition needs to display originality to acquire the law’s protection – a product of skill, judgement and labour which should arguably involve significant human involvement, but how much?

There have been some positive developments for artists’ earnings, with certain AI companies recently reaching settlements with major music rights holders over the use of training data in music generation. However, artists such as Swift may still need stronger protection to prevent the unauthorised use, imitation and commercial exploitation of their distinctive vocal styles.

The current regulatory grey areas around AI’s use of IP have been likened to the wild west. With her trademarking initiative, Swift has donned her Stetson, pinned on her five-point star badge and declared herself the new sheriff in town.

Justin Morey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

When basketball was invented by medical doctor James Naismith in 1891 – to keep American football players active during winter – all baskets were worth two points, regardless of where they were shot from.

Games were dominated by tall players who usually shot from close to the basket.

It was often very crowded near the basket and there were fewer opportunities for smaller players.

This all changed when the 3-point line was introduced.

History of the 3-point line

The 3-point line was temporarily trialled in a few college games and minor professional leagues from the 1940s to the early 1960s, but was seen as more of a gimmick.

It gained more popularity after it was introduced in the American Basketball Association (ABA) (a competitor league to the NBA) during the 1967–68 season.

Sports can change dramatically in the blink of an eye. Sometimes, these moments create immediate shockwaves. Other times, it’s not until much later that their impact become obvious. This is part of a rolling series that explores key (and sometimes long forgotten) moments in sports history.

Read more: Game changers: how a rainy week led a frustrated Don Bradman to reinvent cricket

The ABA wanted to make basketball more interesting and exciting. It viewed the 3-pointer as the equivalent to a home run in baseball and believed it would “give smaller player a chance to score and open up the defence to make the game more enjoyable to fans”.

The ABA merged with the NBA in 1976 but the NBA did not immediately introduce the 3-pointer because many traditional coaches and players were against it.

It was finally introduced for the 1979–80 season, with Chris Ford from the Boston Celtics shooting the first one.

The International Basketball Association (1984) and other national leagues followed this move during the next decade.

It changed basketball, slowly

The 3-point line did not make a big difference straight away.

Players still preferred to shoot from closer to the basket because there was a higher chance of success. Teams did not practise 3-pointers and generally only used them when trying to win a game in the final few seconds.

The San Diego Clippers scored the most 3-pointers for the 1979–80 season, with 177 (2.2 per game). Brian Taylor from the Clippers had the most individual 3-pointers (90).

Times have changed.

During the 2024–25 season the Celtics scored the most 3-pointers: 1,475 (17.8 per game) and every team in the NBA scored more than 900. Some 139 players made 100 or more.

How 3-pointers became more popular

A few key events contributed to 3-pointers becoming more popular.

The inclusion of a 3-point contest at the NBA All-Star weekend in 1986 made the shot more respected. It helped that the first three were won by popular Celtics All-Star Larry Bird.

From 1994 to 1997 the NBA moved the 3-point line closer to the basket (from 7.24 metres to 6.71m) to encourage more scoring in games.

While it did not improve the trend of lower scores and the line was moved back, teams did start to shoot more threes.

The Steph Curry phenomenon

In the 2010s, the rise of the Golden State Warriors sparked a 3-point revolution.

Led by two-time MVP Steph Curry, the Warriors’ heavy reliance on the 3-pointer helped them make the NBA Finals five years in a row, winning three championships.

Curry, who is more than 10cm shorter than the average NBA player, is credited with changing the game by regularly shooting “deep threes” from way behind the 3-point line. This allowed him more time to shoot over taller players.

It also changed how other teams defend because they have to cover more space to defend him. Consequentially, his teammates enjoy increased scoring opportunities.

Curry is the most successful 3-point shooter in NBA history. Kids now want to “be like Steph”.

WNBA All-Star Caitlin Clark has also been influential increasing the popularity of 3-pointers.

The role of analytics

Statistics-focused executives such as Daryl Morey also played a key role in the increasing popularity of 3-pointers.

They realised teams could score more points by shooting 3-pointers, even if they shot a slightly lower percentage.

For example, if a team takes ten 3-point shots and make 40% (four) of them, they will score 12 points (4x3 = 12). This is more than they will score if they take ten 2-point shots and make 50% (five) of them (5x2 = 10).

Under Morey’s leadership, the Houston Rockets became the first NBA team to attempt more 3-pointers than 2-pointers in a season. They did this from 2017 to 2020, when they won three consecutive division titles.

A statistical analysis across ten seasons from 2009–10 to 2018–19 also showed teams that took more 3-point shots had a higher probability of winning.

This rise in 3-pointers has come almost exclusively at the expense of mid-range shots.

Mid-range shots are shot from outside the paint but inside the 3-point line (roughly 3–7m from the basket).

The percentage of total shots from mid-range has plummeted from 31% in 2010–11 to just 13% a decade later, while shots in the paint (close to the basket) have remained relatively steady.

The 3-point line has improved the game by adding variety in offence, spreading players out and allowing players of different sizes and skills to be successful.

However, fans, players and commentators are starting to wonder whether there are now too many 3-pointers being shot.

Too much of a good thing?

The increased emphasis on 3-pointers in the NBA has coincided with a decline in viewership. Although these may not be related, it has sparked concerns.

NBA Commissioner Adam Silver noted that while game attendance remained strong and fans enjoy the skill on display, he acknowledged some teams’ attacking plays can appear “cookie cutter” as teams mimic each other’s 3-point-heavy tactics.

NBA legend Shaquille O’Neal also stated the 3-point craze made games feel predictable, where “every team is running the same plays”.

Time for a change?

Suggestions from former players, coaches, commentators and spectators include moving the line further back, reducing the space available for shooting 3-pointers from the corner of the court, increasing overall court dimensions, adding a 4-point line or even capping teams’ 3-pointer attempts.

Silver says the league is open to exploring tweaks if they improve the balance between inside and outside play.

There are no plans to change yet, as any rule change will trigger flow-on effects for offence and defence that may not improve the game.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

When Danish footballer Christian Eriksen collapsed during a friendly match recently, many people would have been surprised to see the footballer walk off the pitch after regaining consciousness.

The event brought back memories of Eriksen’s cardiac arrest during the delayed Euro 2020 tournament in 2021. On that occasion, he required emergency treatment on the pitch.

After the incident, Eriksen was fitted with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD). It’s thanks to this device that he is now recovering at home. The footballer even posted on social media that his ICD “did exactly what it was designed to do: protect me when I needed it”.

Although details of this latest incident are still emerging, ICDs – however effective – do not make someone immune to symptoms, blackouts or future medical problems.

What is an ICD and how does it work?

An ICD is a small pacemaker-like device designed to protect people at risk of dangerous heart rhythm disturbances. These abnormal rhythms can stop the heart from pumping enough blood around the body and, if left untreated, may lead to cardiac arrest.

The ICD is implanted under the skin below the collarbone and connected to the heart by one or more thin leads. It continuously monitors the heartbeat and can respond within seconds if a dangerous rhythm occurs. Depending on the situation, it may deliver a series of small electrical impulses or, if necessary, a stronger shock to restore a normal rhythm.

Importantly, an ICD does not stop abnormal rhythms from occurring. Like an airbag in a car, it provides protection when something goes wrong.

Why would someone need an ICD?

ICDs are recommended for people who have survived a cardiac arrest or who are known to be at high risk of developing life-threatening heart rhythms.

This includes some people with inherited heart conditions, diseases affecting the heart muscle, previous heart attacks or disorders of the heart’s electrical system.

How does an ICD respond during a cardiac emergency?

If a dangerous rhythm occurs, the ICD can deliver treatment within seconds. Patients may experience palpitations, breathlessness, chest discomfort or dizziness before treatment is delivered.

If a shock is required, it’s often described as a sudden jolt or thump to the chest. Although unpleasant, the shock is intended to stop a potentially fatal rhythm disturbance.

Modern ICDs also record detailed information about these events and can often transmit information directly to the hospital.

Can someone with an ICD still lose consciousness?

Although ICDs act quickly, they are not instantaneous. If a dangerous rhythm develops suddenly, blood flow to the brain can fall before treatment is delivered. Some people may therefore feel dizzy, lightheaded or briefly lose consciousness.

However, not every blackout is caused by a dangerous heart rhythm. In fact, other causes are often more common.

Many people with ICDs take medications that lower blood pressure or slow the heart. These treatments are important but can occasionally cause blood pressure to fall too low in certain situations – for example, if someone becomes dehydrated, is unwell with an infection or stands up quickly.

Exercise can contribute too. During physical activity, the body normally increases heart rate and blood pressure to maintain blood flow to the brain and muscles. But some heart medications can blunt these responses, occasionally leading to dizziness or even a blackout despite the heart rhythm remaining normal.

What tests do doctors perform after an incident?

After an ICD delivers treatment, doctors will usually want to understand exactly what happened.

One of the first steps is to interrogate the device, allowing specialists to review recordings of the heart rhythm before, during and after the event. Additional tests may include an electrocardiogram (ECG), blood tests and an echocardiogram.

These tests allow doctors to look for the cause of the blackout and exclude other problems. Doctors will also look for possible triggers such as worsening heart disease, dehydration, medication changes or abnormalities in blood chemistry.

Why do athletes with ICDs remain under close monitoring?

Athletes and highly active people require particularly careful follow-up after an incident.

Exercise is important for health and many people with ICDs can continue to participate in sport. However, very fast heart rates during intense exercise can make it more difficult for the device to distinguish between normal exertion and a dangerous rhythm. In some people, strenuous exercise may also increase the likelihood of rhythm disturbances.

Regular reviews allow doctors to assess symptoms, review device recordings and adjust settings where necessary.

Eriksen’s return to elite football after his cardiac arrest demonstrated what modern heart rhythm management can achieve. His latest collapse is a reminder that an ICD is only one part of managing people at risk of dangerous heart rhythms.

These devices cannot cure the underlying condition, but they provide a powerful layer of protection that allows many people, including some professional athletes, to continue living active and fulfilling lives.

Klaus Witte has received funding for research into personalised programming of pacemakers and ICDs from the UK NIHR and the British Heart Foundation.

If you or someone you’re caring for has a medical emergency, visit your nearest emergency department or call 000.

But what if it’s not an emergency, or you’re not sure? Sometimes you can’t wait wait until 9am or Monday morning to see a doctor or access health care.

You might have a fever that’s not subsiding, a sprain that could be a break, a painful urinary tract infection, or a distressing situation that demands immediate mental health support.

Here are your options for accessing timely health care, in-person and virtually – including some that are free.

Medicare Urgent Care Clinics

Medicare Urgent Care Clinics provide bulk-billed care by a general practitioner (GP) for non-life-threatening illnesses and injuries.

Patients can walk in without an appointment or referral, and can access other services such as blood tests and X-rays. There are no out-of-pocket costs.

You can find your local clinic here.

Search engines to find a GP appointment – in person or online

Health service search engines such as Healthengine and HotDoc can help you find GPs and book appointments.

You can filter search results by types of services and telehealth availability, including the “GP telehealth on-demand option within 15 minutes” on Hotdoc.

Many will come with out-of-pocket costs.

Home visits

In-person home doctor visits for urgent, episodic illness or injury can also be arranged through options such as 13SICK National Home Doctor Service, DoctorDoctor, Hello Home Doctor Service, Sydmed, 13 CURE and OnCallDrs.

These are often bulk billed.

A call with a nurse or doctor

The new 1800MEDICARE helpline is a free 24/7 service where you can speak to a registered nurse about any health concern.

They will listen to your concerns, assess your symptoms and provide advice on next steps. This might mean looking after yourself at home, getting help from a GP, or attending an Urgent Care Clinic, pharmacy or emergency department.

If the 1800MEDICARE nurse advises you to see a GP within 24 hours, you may be offered a telephone or video call back from a 1800MEDICARE GP. These GPs can provide prescriptions via SMS.

Virtual emergency departments for non-life-threatening emergencies

Virtual emergency departments are free, online emergency departments that treat non-life-threatening emergencies such as pain, sprains, infections, respiratory illnesses, gastroenteritis, high blood pressure, pain, infections, minor burns and rashes.

Examples include:

• the Victorian Virtual Emergency Department
• the South Australia Child and Adolescent Virtual Urgent Care Service
• Queensland Virtual Emergency Care Service.

Read more: What is a virtual emergency department? And when should you ‘visit’ one?

Another similar option is My Emergency Doctor, which offers patients access to specialist emergency doctors via video call or telephone 24 hours a day, seven days a week. However, this service costs $150.

Medicines and pharmacists

Some pharmacies operate on extended business hours, including 24 hours. You can find a pharmacy near you at this link, with the option to filter by “extended hours”.

In some circumstances, pharmacies can issue a small amount of a medicine if you’ve run out.

In some states and territories, pharmacists can provide medicines such as antibiotics for simple urinary tract infections without a prescription.

Read more: It’s now easier to get antibiotics for UTIs. But here’s what to do if your symptoms don’t go away

For people living in remote Australia, the Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) runs a Medical Chests program. Medical chests contain a range of pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical items, including prescription-only medicines, which RFDS doctors may prescribe after a phone consultation.

Pregnancy, birth and children

Pregnancy, Birth and Baby is a free national service that provides support to expecting parents, and parents of children from birth to five years of age.

You can speak to maternal and child health nurses via phone, by calling 1800 882 436, or video call about you or your baby, between 7am and midnight, seven days a week.

CubCare is another virtual urgent care option which provides access to paediatric emergency doctors, for a fee.

Dental care

The Australian Dental Foundation runs a free 24/7 Emergency Dental Hotline which can help you work out the urgency of your issue and your next steps.

National Emergency Dentist is a private health service which connects patients to emergency dentists offering same-day and after-hours appointments, for a fee.

Mental health phone support

Mental health support will depend on your individual needs and background. You can access mental health support after hours through these call services (some also have online chats):

• Lifeline: 24/7 crisis support

• Beyond Blue: counselling via phone online chat

• Kids Helpline: 24/7 online and phone counselling for young people aged five to 25 years

• Suicide Call Back Service: 24/7 service providing phone and online counselling to anyone affected by suicide

• 1800 RESPECT: 24/7 support for people affected by domestic, family, or sexual violence

• Gambling Help Online: phone and online support for anyone affected by gambling

• National Alcohol and Other Drug Hotline: 24/7 service for all states and territories, except South Australia which operates 8.30am–10pm

• the Butterfly Foundation for free and confidential support about eating disorders and body image.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander services

• 13 YARN: 24/7 crisis support phone line operated by and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

• Yarning Safe'N'Strong: 24/7 support available to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who need to have a yarn with someone about their wellbeing

• Brother to Brother: 24/7 crisis line providing phone support for Aboriginal men, staffed by Aboriginal men, including Elders.

LGBTQIA+ services

• QLife: phone and webchat that operates during afternoons and evenings seven days a week to support LGBTQIA+ people.

Communication assistance

The National Translating and Interpreting Service offers support to non-English speaking people for their consultations. This service is typically free, covers 150 languages and can be accessed after-hours. Register here.

The National Relay Service provides assistance to people with hearing or speech difficulties during their medical consultations.

Mahima Kalla received previous funding from the Digital Health Cooperative Research Centre to help build a patient consultation summary application within Healthdirect's video telehealth platform.

Feby Savira Feby received a Priority Primary Care Centre Fellowship (2023-2025) supported by the Western Victoria Primary Health Network and was involved in the evaluation of Priority Primary Care Centres in the Western Victoria region.

Kara Burns receives funding from the Australian General Practice Foundation to research the scaling of digital maternity care in remote general practice. 

Sathana Dushyanthen does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

A huge change is coming to the world’s booming artificial intelligence (AI) sector.

Starting with Elon Musk’s SpaceX, with OpenAI and Anthropic preparing to follow, all three private companies are set to sell shares of their stock to the general public for the first time. These are what’s known as initial public offerings (IPOs).

SpaceX – the first of them to launch this Friday, June 12 – expects to raise $US75 billion from selling just 4% of the company’s shares.

Musk is already the world’s richest man, worth around US$800 billion. He owns around 42% of SpaceX now, plus options to buy more shares at a fraction of the US$135 a share price ordinary investors are being asked to pay. Given his existing wealth, after this Friday’s listing Musk looks likely to become the world’s first trillionaire.

Together, these three companies are valued at almost $US4 trillion and are expected to raise a record-breaking $US200 billion, despite well-founded concerns that big AI stocks are now hugely overvalued.

While most of the news coverage has focused on the money involved, there’s actually another side to these sales that could be a big deal in the longer run.

At a time when everyone from the Pope to people from all walks of life worldwide are concerned about AI’s growing role in our lives, these stock exchange listings have the potential to finally bring some extra transparency to the inner workings of the AI giants.

Why SpaceX, OpenAI and Anthropic matter to you

Once these companies list, hundreds of millions of investors around the world will be exposed to these companies. That could be directly, if you buy these stocks, or else through index funds, which hold shares on behalf of investors – including big retirement and superannuation funds.

Even for those who don’t consider themselves investors, these three share offerings could easily affect your savings too.

Here’s what we know about these IPOs so far.

SpaceX’s most recent June 3 filing amendment with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission added a notable new line. It said SpaceX “may issue a significant amount of equity in connection with future transactions”.

US business outlet Fortune is reading this as a signal for a possible future Tesla merger, bringing another of Musk’s companies into the fold. That could be the biggest merger in history.

Read more: Switzerland’s entire GDP: visualising Elon Musk’s record-breaking pay deal

Investors can sue over failures to disclose

Once publicly listed, the AI labs of SpaceX – xAI – as well as Anthropic and Open AI would be subject to public market scrutiny for the first time.

This would push these companies to disclose more AI risks than they have had to as private companies – or risk being sued for misleading investors.

US securities laws are among the most enforceable in the world. Under US law, investors can sue a company for securities fraud if it fails to disclose a risk that later materialises.

One regulation commonly used in securities fraud lawsuits is Rule 10b-5 under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.

This has been successfully used in the past many times. For example, Bank of America paid US$2.43 billion settle a lawsuit related to its purchase of investment bank Merrill Lynch in 2008. Countrywide Financial paid US$600 million for failing to disclose the mounting risks of its subprime mortgage business.

Only last month, the International Monetary Fund warned “financial stability risks mount as artificial intelligence fuels cyberattacks”, pointing out:

Anthropic’s recent controlled release of its Claude Mythos Preview, an advanced AI model with exceptional cyber capabilities, underscored how quickly risks are increasing […] This foreshadows how fast‑moving, AI‑driven cyber risks could destabilize the financial system if not managed carefully.

There are good reasons to be concerned about the increasing dominance of tech companies and what happens to economies around the world if the AI share bubble bursts.

Having more of the biggest AI companies forced into greater disclosure would offer one silver lining amid those AI fears.

What difference could public disclosure make?

Just as an example, let’s suppose Anthropic accidentally leaked its Claude Mythos source code (like a leak that actually happened earlier this year). Then let’s say North Korean hackers used that code to hack into US government systems.

If that happened when Anthropic was a public company, its share price would very likely fall in response.

Investors could then sue Anthropic for failing to disclose the risk of code leak, which later caused the share price to fall.

This mechanism has its limitations: it only works if AI harms are eventually reflected in stock prices of Anthropic.

In other words, the mechanism only protects the general public from AI risks indirectly – though protecting Anthropic’s investors first.

Read more: Musk’s SpaceX is shaping up as the biggest IPO on record. It’s also bending the rules to do so

How much more accountability should we expect?

The market is meant to incorporate all public information to arrive at the fair price of a public company.

In doing so, market listings should make it easier for investors to police AI safety. After all, it’s in investors’ interests to not drive humanity to the verge of collapse.

But is the market delivering on this function so far with AI?

So far, you’d have to say it’s not. For instance, the world’s second-largest stock exchange, the New York-based Nasdaq, controversially changed its own rules for SpaceX to join its Nasdaq 100 index after just 15 trading days, not the usual three months.

But perhaps there is still hope that investors’ own desire to survive AI will make them push companies to manage AI’s risks more responsibly.

Will it be enough? Probably not on its own. The risks most people worry about with AI – diffuse, slow-moving, hard to pin to a single quarter – may never register clearly in an earnings report.

But more disclosure is better than less. And more disclosure is exactly what these listings will finally force.

Marta Khomyn does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

At the start of cosmic history, galaxies were big clouds of gas, and they grew by turning that gas into stars. If a galaxy runs out of gas, it will stop forming stars and die.

Present-day galaxies have had more than 10 billion years to grow old and die. But this is not true in the early universe: we expect to see very few dead galaxies in the first billion years of cosmic time.

In 2022, the James Webb Space Telescope gave us our first clear glimpse of galaxies in the early universe. What we saw completely defied our expectations: there were too many big, dead galaxies, far earlier than expected.

Astronomers came up with many possible explanations. Some suggested that dark energy – the mysterious phenomenon believed to be driving the universe’s expansion – may have been stronger in the early universe than current theories predict. This would allow galaxies to grow (and die) faster. However, the real solution may be much simpler.

Our new study, published today in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, reveals an early massive galaxy in the throes of death: its gas is being rapidly blasted into space by a powerful “galaxy wind”, and it may very soon run out of gas. This galaxy offers a new solution to the mystery of what killed big galaxies in the early universe.

Prime suspects for massive galaxy death

There are two ways to eject gas from galaxies: exploding stars (called supernovae) that push gas away, and supermassive black holes that accelerate gas to such high speeds that it escapes the gravitational pull of the galaxy. Both produce fast-moving gas streams that astronomers call galaxy winds.

These winds have long been considered one of the main causes of galaxy death.

Black holes produce faster winds than exploding stars, making them the favoured means for ejecting gas from the largest, most massive galaxies. Many theories suggest that only the powerful winds driven by supermassive black holes can kill the largest galaxies.

However, testing these predictions is hard. As the gas in the wind leaves a galaxy, it becomes very faint very quickly, making galaxy winds difficult to see even in nearby galaxies.

In distant galaxies, they were almost invisible until recently.

Transforming our view of the early universe

Designed to look deeper in space than any telescope before it, the James Webb Space Telescope has transformed our view of the early universe. It allows us to see things that were previously undetectable – including hot, fast-moving gas ejected from early massive galaxies.

For our new study, we paired observations from the James Webb Space Telescope with data from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, the world’s most powerful radio telescope, which measures cold star-forming gas swept out of galaxies by winds.

Together, these telescopes give us the most complete picture yet of galaxy winds in the early universe.

One galaxy, called CRISTAL-02, stood out to us immediately. We noticed it was forming stars twice as fast as other similar-sized galaxies. Our extremely sensitive observations revealed a huge plume of cold gas extending far away from CRISTAL-02. This plume was almost as long as the galaxy itself – a telltale sign the gas was being driven out of the galaxy.

The wind from CRISTAL-02 was ejecting twice as much gas as the galaxy converts into stars, and this gas was likely travelling fast enough to escape the galaxy. If the wind kept ejecting gas at the same rate, the galaxy would run out of fuel in less than 100 million years – a blink of an eye in cosmic terms – forming a massive dead galaxy less than 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.

Paradoxically, the wind appeared to be driven by the same intense star formation that was making the galaxy grow so quickly.

Cosmic collisions may hold the answer

To complete the picture, we need to understand why CRISTAL-02 was growing so fast in the first place.

The answer may lie in the fact that CRISTAL-02 is not a single galaxy, but multiple galaxies in the final stages of a cosmic collision. During such collisions, gas funnels towards the galaxy centres, triggering strong bursts of star formation.

In the present-day universe, galaxy collisions are relatively rare: they are seen in only a few percent of galaxies. But one billion years after the Big Bang, the universe was far more compact, meaning galaxies were packed much closer together.

Recent studies suggest around 40% of big galaxies in the early universe are in the process of merging. Some of these galaxies will likely face a similar fate to CRISTAL-02: undergoing frenzied bursts of star-formation, followed by powerful winds that lead to their deaths.

Our findings show that powerful winds capable of killing galaxies do not originate exclusively from supermassive black holes: they can also be triggered by the intense star-formation that causes galaxies to grow rapidly.

If many early galaxies collide and experience rapid growth, then it may not be surprising at all that we see so many dead galaxies in the early universe. CRISTAL-02 offers a natural solution to the mystery of why these massive galaxies live fast and die young.

Rebecca Davies receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

Deanne Fisher receives funding from Australian Research Council.

Pope Leo XIV has just declared artificial intelligence one of the defining moral challenges of our time, in his first encyclical: a formal letter intended to guide moral, social and theological thought. Titled Magnifica Humanitas (Magnificent Humanity), it argues technology must serve humanity, rather than concentrate power or weaken human dignity.

He presented it at the Vatican alongside AI developer Christopher Olah, cofounder of Anthropic, who acknowledged that companies like his need moral guidance to guard against “incentives and constraints that can sometimes conflict with doing the right thing”, the New York Times reported.

“Technology is not simply a tool,” read the roughly 42,300-word open letter. “When it becomes the standard by which everything is judged, it begins to dictate what matters and what can be discarded, reducing creation to an object of exploitation and human beings to mere cogs in a system driven toward ever greater efficiency.”

It warns that AI is never truly neutral, but “takes on the characteristics of those who devise, finance, regulate and use it”. And it calls for ethical oversight, social justice, protection of workers, responsible governance and peace.

Automated warfare

The encyclical criticises the use of AI in warfare, calling for imposing the “most rigorous ethical constraints” on weapons developed using AI.

As governments invest heavily in autonomous military technologies and AI-assisted defence systems, the “growing ease” of deploying them makes war more likely and “less subject to human control”, it warns. This “violates the principle that armed force should be used only as a last resort in cases of legitimate self-defense”.

The letter also criticises the growing concentration of technological power, and systems that reduce people to data or economic functions. It promotes what it calls a “civilisation of love”, centred on human dignity, solidarity, truth, compassion and the common good.

Pope Leo’s response to the the AI revolution deliberately references his predecessor Pope Leo XIII’s response to the problems of the Industrial Revolution, Rerum Novarum (“Of New Things”), in 1891. Though Magnifica Humanitas was released on May 25 2026, it is symbolically dated May 15, the date of Rerum Novarum.

Industrial Revolution to AI Revolution

An encyclical is not an ordinary papal statement. Traditionally addressed to bishops and the wider Catholic world, it is one of the Catholic church’s most authoritative teaching documents.

The pope no longer has the direct political power the papacy held in the 19th century. But papal teaching still carries moral weight across a global Catholic network of schools, universities, charities, hospitals and community organisations.

The Vatican cannot regulate AI. It cannot write safety standards, police data centres, or force companies to disclose how their systems work. But it can help shape the moral terms of the debate. For more than a century, Catholic social teaching has influenced public arguments about work, inequality, poverty, human dignity and the ethical limits of economic power.

Although popes issued encyclicals long before the modern era, Rerum Novarum made social encyclicals globally influential.

It confronted exploitative labour conditions, widening inequality, and conflict between workers and employers. Pope Leo XIII defended workers’ rights and argued that wealth carried social responsibilities. He criticised both unrestricted capitalism and revolutionary socialism.

The document influenced debates about labour rights and economic justice well beyond the church. In Australia in 1907, Justice H.B. Higgins drew on Rerum Novarum when establishing principles for a fair living wage.

Pope Leo XIV’s encyclical attempts to do for the AI age what Rerum Novarum did for the industrial age: provide a moral framework for a technological transformation reshaping work, power and human relationships.

Human dignity in the age of algorithms

Pope Leo XIV argues human rights are not granted by governments or corporations: they arise from the intrinsic dignity of every person. Technologies should serve humanity rather than reduce people to data, economic units or optimisation problems.

He builds on Pope Francis’ critique of “the tendency to let the logic of efficiency, control and profit alone shape personal, social and economic decisions”, in his 2015 encyclical. It, too, warned of the risks of technology.

Pope Leo XIV argues moral responsibility can’t be transferred to automated systems, regardless of how sophisticated they become. He also rejects transhumanist ideas that human limitations should be technologically overcome, arguing vulnerability, dependence and imperfection are essential to being human. Relationships, care, solidarity and compassion are not weaknesses. “Humanity flourishes not despite limitations, but often through them.”

Running throughout the encyclical is a contrast between a “culture of power” and a “civilization of love”. One treats technology primarily as a tool for domination and control. The other places human dignity, justice and care at the centre of social life.

Why this matters

The significance of Magnifica Humanitas lies in its ability to shape public conversation and moral imagination. Moral frameworks matter. They influence what societies fear, what they tolerate, what they defend – and what they refuse to sacrifice.

Governments are investing in AI capability while still developing frameworks for transparency, accountability and safe deployment. Businesses are adopting AI tools at speed. Schools and universities are rethinking assessment, authorship and learning. Workers are being asked to adapt to systems they did not design and often cannot challenge. And citizens are increasingly governed, assessed and targeted by automated systems they may never see.

Pope Leo XIV’s intervention reminds us the central question is not whether AI will be powerful: it already is. The question is whether that power will be made answerable to human dignity.

The future of AI will not just be decided in laboratories, boardrooms or parliaments. It will also be decided by the moral limits societies are willing to set. Pope Leo XIV’s encyclical is an attempt to draw those limits.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

In years gone by, school leavers had one main chance to get into university – by finishing their Year 12 exams with certain marks.

Media coverage of Year 12 results perpetuates the idea everything hinges on your final exams. Every year it runs the same stories of star students with perfect ATARs (Australian Tertiary Entrance Rank).

In reality, the ATAR is just one way to begin undergraduate study. There are multiple paths that can take you to uni if that’s where you want to go.

One of these paths is an enabling program. How do these work?

Read more: Help! I’m almost finished school but don’t know what I want to do next

What are enabling courses?

Enabling courses are designed to lead to a university course, usually an undergraduate degree.

They were traditionally called “bridging” programs because they bridge the gap between high school and university for students who don’t meet university entrance requirements. They are also called tertiary preparation programs (or TPPs) because they prepare students for undergraduate tertiary study. You may also hear them called “uni ready” courses.

Enabling courses are fee-free for Australian citizens, as part of a federal government push to encourage wider participation in university study.

Some students enter straight out of school or during the senior years of school. Some enter many years after leaving school and may not have completed Year 12.

Different universities in different states will have different admission requirements, for example, English language requirements. Students should check the specific website of the university for the most detailed and current information.

How do they work?

There are about 48 enabling programs offered by universities across Australia.

The courses can cover a variety of different subjects like academic writing, study skills, mathematics, science, digital literacy and discipline-specific options.

They all teach the skills you need to do well in university study, even if you have not completed high school.

The courses are taught by university lecturers who are especially focused on student support and inclusive teaching.

What’s involved?

These courses can be delivered in high schools, on university campuses, face-to-face or online.

Usually students complete four courses that relate to the undergraduate discipline they want to enter. Successful completion of these usually allows the student to enrol directly into the undergraduate program.

This can include areas such as law, communications, science, arts, education, business, engineering and healthcare, but may vary across different universities.

The programs, with four courses, can potentially be completed in a single semester, or even in a compressed study session over the summer holiday period. So, in theory, you could do an enabling course and enrol in an undergraduate degree mid-year or the next year.

To get started you can search the website of the university of your choice for “enabling”, “TPP” or “FFUR” courses and apply directly online. Also speak directly to support staff at the uni to ask what prerequisites you need to apply for the degree you are interested in.

Who can do an enabling course?

It is estimated approximately 25,000 students Australia-wide will undertake a fee-free enabling course in 2026.

Around 60% of enabling students are from equity groups who are less likely to go to uni. This includes students from regional and remote areas, students from a non-English speaking background, people with a disability or students from low socioeconomic backgrounds.

Enabling programs can also benefit students who experienced significant illness or disruption in their final years at school.

Or perhaps they are the first person in their family to go to university.

What does it mean for later study?

Doing an enabling program does not mean you are less able to cope with uni than peers who enrolled with an ATAR.

Data suggests students who enter degree programs via enabling courses do just as well in their studies as students who come straight from high school.

In our own experience, we see some students enjoy enabling programs more than school study – they prefer the more flexible, adult environment.

Some young people don’t know what they want to do when they leave school. So an enabling course also gives them a chance to try out higher education without incurring a debt.

Susan Hopkins teaches in an enabling education program and works for a university which offers a Tertiary Preparation Program.

Greg Nash teaches in an enabling education program and works for a university which offers a Tertiary Preparation Program.

Whether you’re commuting to work or roadtripping up the coast, driving can be tiring.

That’s because driving is a complex task that requires multiple parts of your brain – including those that help you plan, stay alert, and perceive the world – to work together.

But when you’re tired, these parts of your brain may not function as well. That’s one reason why driver fatigue is such a concern.

Recent research shows drowsy driving contributes to between 20% and 30% of all crashes on Australian roads. And it can affect drivers of all ages and levels of experience.

So how does driving affect your brain? And how can you stay alert while on the road?

The neuroscience of driving

Driving is a complex task that relies on brain regions that control attention and vigilance, perception, motor control and high-level cognition.

One meta-analysis examined existing research about how driving affects brain activity. It found driving requires a surprisingly large number of specific brain regions.

This includes the cerebellum and premotor cortex, two brain regions that help coordinate movement. Also involved is the extrastriate cortex, which processes visual information from the world around you. Driving also activates the thalamus, a part of the brain that helps you stay alert and turn sensory information into physical movement.

Why is driver fatigue so dangerous?

Research suggests driving while you are tired can be just as dangerous as driving under the influence of alcohol. About 20% of all deaths on Australian roads are fatigued-related.

Fatigue is a physiological state of impairment that impacts how well your mind and body function. Specifically, fatigue can negatively affect how well you pay attention, make decisions and respond to your surroundings – all of which are crucial for safe driving.

However, microsleeps are perhaps the most dangerous consequence of driving while tired. A microsleep is a brief, involuntary period of sleep which can last up to 15 seconds.

But even during a three-second microsleep at 100 kilometres per hour, your car may travel more than 80 metres without you being in control. This can have catastrophic consequences if you drift off the road, or into pedestrians or other vehicles.

Time matters

Driving may feel like a task you do automatically. But it does require a high level of sustained attention, especially compared to other activities such as responding to emails, operating machinery, or doing other ordinary work tasks.

If you drive for a long time, you might notice yourself paying less attention over time. That’s because driving takes significant mental effort, with some evidence suggesting fatigue may set in after just 60 minutes of driving.

The longer you’re continuously driving, the more likely you are to make a poor decision or fall into a microsleep. Research suggests this is especially true if you are driving at night or on monotonous roads. And even if you don’t feel tired, you may still make errors because your brain is not fully alert.

So if you have a long drive ahead of you, a good rule of thumb is to break it into two-hour blocks. This limits the amount of time spent driving without a break, which helps to reduce your risk of getting driver fatigue.

Other factors to consider

Several other factors may make you more tired while driving.

One is sleep. Research shows having less than five hours of sleep can double your chances of being in a crash. And being awake for long periods – that is more than 17 hours – is also associated with higher risk of driver fatigue.

Another factor is driving at times when you’d normally be sleeping. This disrupts your circadian rhythm – commonly known as your “body clock” – and may mean you’re more likely to fall asleep at the wheel.

Research suggests stress, parenting a newborn, and not consuming enough water or healthy food may also contribute to driver fatigue.

It’s also worth noting, being an experienced driver doesn’t protect you from fatigue. Research shows experienced drivers are still at risk of getting into a fatigue-related crash. Experienced drivers may also become overconfident and, as a result, may take more risks on the road.

So, how can I stay alert while driving?

It’s crucial to get enough sleep before jumping behind the wheel. To function at their best, adults generally need between seven and nine hours of sleep each night. But to drive safely, you need at least five hours of sleep the night before.

Importantly, there isn’t much evidence to suggest strategies such as winding down your window or listening to music actually fight fatigue.

Instead, when driving long distances, remember to stay hydrated and take regular breaks. And if you’re feeling too tired to drive, take a nap first. You can also share the driving or postpone your trip.

Madeline Sprajcer receives funding from the Australian Research Council.

Alysa Bachmann receives funding from Australian Rotary Health.

The World Health Organization has declared the Ebola outbreak in Africa a public health emergency of international concern.

So far, 336 people have been infected in the central African and East African countries of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. At least 88 people have died.

Ebola is caused by a group of viruses called Orthoebolaviruses. The strain of the virus responsible for the outbreak, Bundibugyo, is rare. There is no vaccine to protect the public from its spread, making it particularly dangerous.

The WHO declares a public health emergency of international concern when there is a serious, sudden, unusual or unexpected outbreak that requires an international response to reduce its spread.

It has previously declared public health emergencies during outbreaks of mpox, COVID, Ebola, Zika, polio and swine flu.

When did this outbreak start?

The virus was first detected on May 5 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and was confirmed as the Bundibugyo strain on May 15.

The disease had spread to Uganda, with two cases detected in the nation’s capital, Kampala.

A recent suspected case in the DRC’s most populous city, Kinshasa, did not test positive but it seems likely that the outbreak could arrive in this city.

The WHO has warned the true scale of the outbreak is likely larger than current figures suggest.

How does it spread?

African fruit bats appear to be the natural hosts of the virus. Monkeys, apes and antelope can catch the infection from bats.

The first human case was identified in the DRC in 1976. This is the 17th outbreak. The worst outbreak was the 2014–16 West Africa epidemic, which was caused by the Zaire strain and killed more than 11,000 people.

The virus spreads from human to human through direct contact with the bodily fluids of an infected person, such as blood, faeces or vomit, including after they’ve died.

Health-care workers and caregivers face the highest risk of infection.

What are the symptoms?

The symptoms of Ebola disease can be sudden and include a fever, fatigue, malaise, muscle pain, headache and sore throat.

These are followed by vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain rash, and symptoms of impaired kidney and liver functions, leading to organ failure. In some cases, there is bleeding and haemorrhaging.

Overall, around 50% of people who contract Ebola die from it. The mortality rate of previous outbreaks ranges from 25–90%, depending on the strain and access to health care.

The current strain has a lower death rate of around 40%. However it’s considered more dangerous as there is no vaccine.

Why isn’t there a vaccine?

There are two approved vaccines for Ebola.

One, Ervebo, was released in 2015 and was provided to 345,000 people during the 2018–2020 outbreaks in the DRC. This works by using a protein from the Ebola virus to train our immune system to recognise and respond to the virus, without using a live strain.

The other vaccine, Zabdeno, has undergone clinical trials. It is mainly provided to primary contacts and health-care workers. This is because it requires two doses, several weeks apart, making it less suited to an emergency response.

Vaccines for the current Bundibugyo strain are sill in the research stage, having undergone pre-clinical trials in animal models.

How is it treated and managed?

There are no specific treatments for the Bundibugyo strain. Treatment focuses on managing the symptoms such as maintaining blood pressure, reducing vomiting and diarrhoea, maintaining hydration, and managing fever and pain.

Public health responses are overseen by the WHO’s Ebola surveillance strategy. The response combines community communication, rapid diagnosis, isolation, contact tracing and safe burials to stop transmission.

Contact tracing involves identifying everyone who had direct physical contact with a symptomatic case, monitoring them daily for 21 days, and isolating and testing anyone who develops symptoms.

Testing uses real-time PCR and rapid antigen tests (RATs) to detect viral particles in a similar way to COVID.

However, local conflict, poverty and difficult terrain combine to make field management challenging.

Should we be concerned?

The epicentre of the outbreak, Ituri province, is a conflict-affected, high-traffic mining region. Workers regularly move across health zones and borders, increasing the risk of spread.

At least four health-care workers have died, suggesting gaps in infection prevention at health-care facilities.

There is no current need for border closures but authorities have recommended the DRC and Uganda enhance contact tracing and scale-up laboratory testing.

Australia’s direct risk remains low, and the WHO has advised against travel restrictions. Australian border authorities require those returning from Ebola-affected regions to report this.

As this is a rapidly evolving situation, it’s important to remain up-to-date with current restrictions and quarantine guidelines.

Thomas Jeffries does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Chinese food heritage is diverse and vast, and embodies the distinct geographical and historical traces of various cultural identities.

As migrants in Australia, Chinese food features prominently in our everyday lives. Jing grew up eating regional cuisine from northern China; Wilfred grew up eating Cantonese food; Catherine grew up in Singapore enjoying home cooked Chinese food with a Eurasian twist.

The ways in which we understand, approach, enjoy and cook Chinese food are different, and we set out to find the role of food in the lives of other migrants of Chinese ancestry.

Tracing food heritage

We talked to Chinese-Australians between the ages of 18 to 40 to learn about how their food heritages have guided them to navigate and adapt to Australian lives.

They spoke to us about incorporating non-traditional Chinese ingredients, new ways of cooking and sourcing cooking equipment.

In their Australian kitchens, they experimented with the recipes they learnt from their families and those they interpret as “Chinese” cuisine.

They were concerned about authenticity, health and taste to varying degrees in the Chinese dishes they cooked, and spoke about how food heritage helped intergenerational families connect.

Fei* is ethnically Chinese and was born in Indonesia. She has lived in Australia for the past 12 years. She told us:

Whenever I go back to Indonesia, my auntie would cook for us, so I would ask a lot of old recipes […] I love their response because they will always say, when you were a child, you liked to eat this food. They will give you some feedback, but they’ll say, there’s a new way of cooking this.

Fei’s cooking was co-developed with family members, even when they are living in different countries. The art of cooking becomes a way for her family connect, despite distance.

Sally* migrated to Australia about nine years ago from Yunan Province. She shared a poignant story of the health of the older members of her family:

Even my grandmother [who] had Alzheimer’s and she barely remember who am I, but when she had – before I hang up the phone call, she’s like, remember to eat vegetable.

For Sally’s grandmother, even in old age, food was an expression of care.

Food facilitates new understandings of intergenerational family members – even those who have passed away.

Lynn* is an undergraduate student who migrated to Australia as a baby. She describes herself as “ethnically Chinese, but culturally Singaporean”, and told us how she got to know her grandfather through her father’s cooking:

I actually have never tried my grandpa’s chilli crab. I didn’t know that he actually made chilli crab until I think it was like two years [after] he’d passed when my dad made this recipe. […] I’m not sure how similar it was to the original, but it was pretty good.

Lynn’s father’s cooking his father’s chilli crab recipe as a way of honouring him and keeping his memory alive.

New habits

Food heritage is the phrase for the traditional cuisines which define our cultural identities and includes ingredient sourcing, food preparation and food consumption.

Food heritage is not static. It changes as migrants adapt to life in Australia.

Australia’s rich multicultural food cultures create transcultural food experiences for our Chinese-Australians.

Sally spoke to us about her and her mother melding Italian and Chinese ingredients:

If I cook dishes that require Yunnan’s ham, I use Italian prosciutto ham to replace it. It tastes really similar to Yunnan’s ham. My mum does that as well. She likes to get Italian Deli ham, smoked cured bacon, and then she’ll think it tastes like the actual thing from Yunnan.

Rong* came to Australia about 10 years ago from Shandong Province. She told us how she cooks for her daughter who loves noodles:

I need to bring something healthier to her table, and then I was like, okay, I’m not going to use the noodles, the Chinese noodles. I’m going to use pasta noodles, which is low GI, healthier. So, I just tried to figure different kind of ways of the noodles, not only Chinese noodles, but also Italian noodles, Vietnamese noodles, like pho. So all those kinds of things, and she loved them.

Rong also told us that she had to change the way she cooks because her apartment has an induction stove rather than a gas stove.

Although gas and induction stove tops are both common in China, certain dishes such as stir-fry are perceived to taste better in a hot wok on a gas stove.

“Soggy food”, according to many of our participants, is the result of induction stoves and flat pans rather than woks. Rong even told us that now, when she returns to China, she does not know how to cook in a Chinese kitchen with a gas stove.

Adapting to Australia

Food culture, is central to migrant adaptation, acculturation and wellbeing.

By better understanding the evolving nature of food heritage practices in Australia, we can better understand how migrants navigate Australia creatively while these transcultural connections provide an anchor for settlement and belonging.

*Names have been changed.

Catherine Gomes is a member of The Australian Sociological Association.

Jing Qi is affiliated with the RMIT Chinese-Australian Studies Forum, and the Chinese Community Council of Australia Victoria Chapter.

Wilfred Yang Wang is affiliated with Centre for Holistic Health, a not-for-profit organisation that supports the social and mental wellbeing of the Chinese communities in Melbourne, Australia.

Sir Donald Bradman needs little introduction.

Cricket – and possibly world sport’s – most dominant figure, “The Don” is known for his staggering batting feats, including a scarcely believable batting average of 99.94, and his leadership of Australia’s 1948 team nicknamed the “Invincibles”.

However, few would know Bradman was a key figure behind cricket’s transformation from time-consuming five-day matches to the chaotic world of one-day and Twenty20 (T20) games that dominate the sport’s calendar, broadcasts and finances today.

And it was all sparked by Melbourne’s oft-criticised weather, some worried bean-counters, and a bright idea.

Sports can change dramatically in the blink of an eye. Sometimes, these moments create immediate shockwaves. Other times, it’s not until much later that their impact become obvious. This is the first story in a rolling series that explores key (and sometimes long forgotten) moments in sports history.

Read more: Game changers: how soccer’s mega-money era was sparked by a little-known Belgian athlete

The first one-day international

Domestic one-day matches of between 40 and 60 overs a side had been played in India and England since the 1950s.

These shorter, more dynamic games were aimed at attracting new spectators.

However, they had not been considered for international matches.

The first one-day international (ODI) in 1971 was an accident: an unscheduled match played as a last-minute replacement for a Test abandoned due to heavy rain.

According to Australia’s captain Bill Lawry, the match was conceived by Bradman for financial reasons. Facing heavy financial losses the English and Australian cricket boards agreed to play a game on what would have been the last day of the Test.

Around 46,000 spectators saw Australia win after each side was allotted 40 eight-ball overs.

It was a financial hit, popular with spectators and deemed an “overwhelming success” by the media.

But growth of this format was slow, mainly due to the conservative nature of international boards.

The next ODI did not happen until August 1972, and other countries did not start playing them until 1973.

Remarkably, considering the amateur status of women athletes at the time, the first limited-overs World Cup was a women’s tournament in England in 1973 – two years before the maiden men’s World Cup was played.

One-day cricket’s popularity soon soared, especially after the men’s World Cup in 1975.

Kerry Packer’s World Series Cricket, launched in 1977, confirmed its place on the international cricketing calendar and played a huge role in the shorter format’s popularity.

The media baron was desperate to showcase cricket on Channel Nine but his TV rights bid was rejected by the Australian Cricket Board. Aggrieved, Packer instead set up a breakaway competition, signing many of the world’s best players.

The new-look competition featured brightly coloured team kits, white balls, games under lights and batters wearing helmets – all of which are still in place today.

How ODIs changed cricket

Test cricket was, and often still is, criticised for being too slow and boring.

The limited number of overs in ODIs increased the speed of the game: batters looked to score more quickly and take more risks, which resulted in more boundaries.

Clive Lloyd, who captained the West Indies to two World Cup wins, called limited-overs cricket the greatest innovation for the sport. He specifically referred to improved standards of fielding and tactical awareness.

ODIs have greatly increased athleticism: batters need to be stronger to hit more boundaries and quicker to ensure they are fast enough when running between wickets.

Fielders need to be faster and more athletic to stop boundaries and extra runs. They also need stronger arms to throw the ball faster.

In 1992, fielding restrictions were introduced for the first 15 overs, only allowing two fielders outside of a 30-yard circle. This promoted early aggressive batting.

These fielding restrictions forced captains to rethink field placements and bowling rotations.

While Australia scored 191 runs to win the first ODI, current teams regularly surpass 300.

Scoring has increased because of power hitting, bigger bats, specific training and better running between wickets.

Boundary ropes introduced for player safety also reduced the distance required to hit a boundary.

Bowlers have had to develop more variations, such as slower balls, to make it harder for them to score runs.

In this shorter format, the importance of all-rounders (players who can bat and bowl competently) has increased greatly.

Wicketkeepers are also expected to be better batters. Former Australian wicketkeeper Adam Gilchrist had success opening the batting, which gave his team more flexibility to include other batters and all-rounders.

Player uniforms also evolved.

One-day clashes originally used traditional white clothing, but colour uniforms introduced a new dimension for televised cricket. They have been used permanently since the 1992 World Cup.

As the format evolved, player names and then numbers were gradually added to playing tops, making identification easier for commentators and spectators.

Read more: Game changers: how one team’s dominance transformed rugby league forever

Continuing relevance

Limited-overs cricket laid the platform for even shorter formats such as T20s, the Hundred and even ten over games.

Ironically, these innovative formats now threaten the continued relevance of 50-over cricket.

Analysis of more than 340 ODI matches played in Australia between 1985 and 2015 shows average attendances have declined over time. In the 1980s, games in Australia regularly drew crowds of more than 35,000, but in recent years attendance has struggled to regularly reach 25,000 per match.

However, major events like World Cups can still draw large crowds. The 2023 tournament was attended by a record 1.25 million people and made Australian captain Pat Cummins “fall in love with ODI cricket again”.

ODIs have given fans decades of drama and achievement.

Older fans still remember classic games such as Australia’s tied 1999 World Cup semifinal against South Africa, and Michael Bevan’s last-ball four to beat the West Indies on New Year’s Day in 1996.

But 50-over cricket now faces a challenge to stay relevant alongside more exciting and more profitable T20 tournaments.

If ODIs are to keep their place in a busy cricket calendar, they must continue evolving to ensure they maintain player and audience interest.

The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.